寰宇薈萃：城市發展困境

glosnapgs
2021年12月31日
讀畢需時 6 分鐘

已更新：2022年12月13日

人們從鄉村走到城市的原因各異，包括受性別歧視、區域武裝衝突或生態危機影響。《城市與發展》涵蓋不少值得討論的案例，讓我們從食、住、行中，反思怎樣建構宜居的城市。

There are many potential factors which urge citizens to move to urban areas. To escape the discrimination, armed conflict or ecological degradation. In the “Cities and Development”, some of the cases are worth discussing, to highlight the crucial components within the sustainable livelihoods frameworks.

城市發展困境（一）：水

地球上，百分之九十七的的水是鹹水，百分之二的淡水位於兩極冰川。換言之，人類只是手依賴少於百分一的淡水生存。然而水資源在墨西哥城仍未獲妥善管理。西班牙殖民時期，為了興趣住所，不少的湖泊被抽空。即使當地降雨量遠比比倫敦多，也沒有足夠的收集空間。

每逢雨季，整個墨西哥城都逃不了城洪水氾濫的命運。在基礎設施日久失修的情況下，管道漏水，直接影響當地居民，每年損失近五半可飲用的淡水。墨西哥的水源主要來自科羅拉多河，水源來自美國洛磯山脈的融雪。可惜全球變暖導致降雪量減少，進一步影響供水量。

為了解決淡水資源不足，墨西哥政府甚至從地下抽取儲備水。然而做法將會壓縮土壤，整個城市為了水資源，換來不斷下沉的後果。難怪墨西哥民眾反對政府與星座品牌達成協議，以足夠的供水量，換取星座品牌在當地建造啤酒廠。就業機會何時遠比維生資源重要？

Paradox of Urban Development (1) : Water

Water on Earth consists of 97% salt water. While 2% fresh water is trapped at the poles, humans rely on just 1%. But in Mexico City, water is not properly managed. Under the Spanish colony, lakes were drained to create lands for shelter. Even it gets more rain than London, there is no room for rain collection.

The city floods on rainy days. Without repairing the infrastructure, they lost nearly half of fresh water due to the leaky pipes. The main source is from the Colorado River. It originates from the melting snow in the Rocky Mountains of the US. Global warming means less snow. In other words, less water supply.

Mexicans even pump the reserved water from underground. But it compresses the soil and the city is sinking. No wonder people protested when the local government reached a deal with the Constellation Brand. They guaranteed water supply, in exchange for constructing a brewery. Job opportunity surpasses necessity?

城市發展困境（二）：食

（一）經濟緊縮政策悖論

一九八一年，牙買加與與國際貨幣基金組織達成協議，承諾減少政府干預，包括取消針對農產品的利息補貼，及放開匯率。短期內措施刺激當地經濟，但政府似乎低估貨幣貶值後果。

在經濟緊縮政策下，當地經濟增長同時，弱勢群體卻面臨通貨膨脹的困境。牙買加政府其後推出食品券計劃。窮人每個月可以兩次使用食品券購買食品，試圖減輕通脹的負面影響。

（二）全球糧食危機

非洲的喀麥隆、塞內加爾；亞洲的南韓、烏茲別克；拉丁美洲的圭亞那、玻利維亞，全球三十多個城市出現示威。由於生物燃料需求，加上石油價格上漲，增加運輸成本，令這場全球糧食危機響起警號。

在短短幾個月內，主食價格急劇上漲。單是二零零八年的首個季度，小麥和玉米價格就上漲六成八。海地出現六人死亡，總理被迫下台。而在科特迪瓦，雖然示威遭暴力鎮壓，但食品的關稅卻因此獲得調整。

當人們在貨架上看到食物，卻又負擔不起，似乎暗示一場與飢餓相關的戰爭即將來臨。

Paradox of Urban Development (2) : Food

(1) A Classic Paradox under SAP

Under the agreement with the IMF, the Jamaican government promised to reduce intervention in 1981. For instance, abolished the interest subsidies for the agricultural industry and liberalized the exchange rate. It stimulated the economy. But they seemed to underestimate the devaluation of currency.

The economic growth with the impact for the underprivileged formed an unsettling paradox, under the infamous SAP. Subsequently, the government implemented a Food Stamp Program. The poor could purchase food products with the food stamp twice a month, in hopes of mitigating the adverse impacts.

(2) The New Face of Global Hunger

Cameroon, Senegal from Africa. South Korea and Uzbekistan from Asia. Guyana, Bolivia in Latin America. A global food crisis was alerted by the spontaneous protests and riots over 30 cities. The growing demand of biofuel and the increasing price of oil affected the cost of fertilizers and transport.

Consequently, the price for staple food faced a steep rise in a few months. In the first quarter of 2008, the price of wheat and corn rose by 68%. 6 died and the Haitian prime minister was forced to step down. Even protests in Ivory Coast were stopped brutally, customs duties and tax on basic products were cancelled.

How come people see the food on the shelves but are unable to afford it? A prolonged war on the new face of hunger.

城市發展困境（三）：住

貧民窟是指未能符合基本條件，包括供水系統和衞生設備的住所。根據聯合國貧民窟人口指數，二零零五年全球約有九億人居於貧民窟，共佔發展中國家城市約三成人口。

為了改善居住環境，南非政府於一九九四年推出房屋重建與發展計劃，目標是每年建造三十萬個房屋。配合政府的補貼，其中一百萬戶將於五年內，分售予低收入家庭。

二零一零年，南非合共興建十七萬一千個相關單位。然而單位被指居住面積狹窄。對於低收入家庭，即使最低還款由百分之二十調低至十，由於缺乏還款能力，部分人轉售至高收入人士，生活環境始終未能提升。

Paradox of Urban Development (3) : Shelter

Slums refer to housing units that are without adequate conditions, such as access to water supply and sanitation. According to the “Slum population index, the United Nations estimated around 900 million people lived in slums in 2005. In order words, roughly 30% of the urban population in developing countries.

To improve the living condition, the South Africa government implemented the Reconstruction and Development Programme in 1994. It aimed at building 300,000 houses a year. With the government subsidy, at least one million low-cost houses will be allocated to low income citizens within 5 years.

Evidence showed that around 171,000 units were constructed by 2010. Yet, it is criticized that the plots are inadequate for decent size extensions. Even though the down payment adjusted from 20% to 10% for the poor, some of them rent the unit out to higher earning one, due to the unaffordable monthly repayment.

城市發展困境（四）：行

隨著城市人口增長，交通需求亦隨之上升。在沒有足夠道路的情況下，非正式的輔助交通服務，包括小巴和摩托車等，靈活地滿足市場需要，政府無法阻止其增長所帶來的影響。

在烏干達首都坎帕拉，摩托出租車是對交通造成威脅。即使政府試圖以稅收或立法廢除，也未能有效控制。這種俗稱Boda-bodas摩托出租車，在十年間增加至四萬輛。由於這個群體形成龐大利益群體，政客都不敢實施監管。

交通堵塞同樣是拉丁美洲困境。在巴西庫里奇巴，政府以快速巴士系統，低價提供公共交通服務。而哥倫比亞的波哥大，則以公私營方式引入TransMilenio，相關系統時間更短，及成本更低，提供合共二百五十公里的公車服務。

城市化不僅是人口增長和基建增加，最重要的因素是「人」。人民生活水平有否提升，取決於政府能否促進社會和企業發展，及作為公共服務提供者，停止城市化帶來的制度暴力。

Paradox of Urban Development (4) : Transport

As population explodes in urban areas, the demand of transportation rises alongside. Without adequate roads, the informal paratransit services still respond to the market in a flexible manner. Namely minibuses, microbuses and motorcycles. Hardly can the government end the proliferation.

Motorcycle taxis are a big threat to the traffic in Kampala, the capital of Uganda. Even the government attempted to control, neither tax nor abolishment could achieve the goal. The amount of boda-bodas raised to 40,000 in less than a decade. Politicians fear to enforce any regulation to the collective power.

Latin America suffers from the plight of traffic congestion. In Curitiba, Brazil, the government centralized the system, aka Bus Rapid Transit. Buses carry people at a fraction of the cost. TransMilenio was introduced as a public-private partnership in Bogotá, Colombia. Less time, lower cost, with 250km of cycle paths.

Urbanisation is not merely the extension of population and construction of buildings, it is about humans. Whether the living standard of citizens has improved, depends on the role of government, as service providers, civil society and private sector facilitators. The tragedy of structural violence should be halted.