寰宇薈萃：權力平衡，剖析國際關係的關鍵詞

一）國際政治的基本形式

基本形式	闡釋與例子
1）世界帝國體系	・有一個政府主導著與它交往的絕大多數國家的行為 ・不是真正的世界性帝國，而是屬於地區性帝國，由於交通阻隔而免於與外部世界發生衝突或競爭 ・帝國與周邊蠻族的戰爭，與大致平等的國家間戰爭不可相提並論 ・例：羅馬帝國、蘇美王朝、波斯帝國等
2）封建體系	・個人效忠的主體和政治義務主要不是由領土邊界決定 ・個人除效忠本地封建領主，還可能對較遠的貴族、主教及羅馬教皇負有義務；取決於自己上級的命運 ・羅馬帝國崩解後，封建主義在西方普遍存在
3）無政府國家體系	・由相對具有內聚力的國家組成，無更高政府凌駕 ・一六四八年《西發利亞和約》標誌三十年戰爭終結，被稱為最後一次宗教戰爭和第一次現代戰爭 ・相關和約使領土主權國家成為主要的政治單位 ・例：古代希臘的城邦國家

二）國際關係的理論

國際關係理論	闡釋與代表人物
1）現實主義	・英國哲學家湯瑪斯・霍布斯認為，國際政治是一個自助體系，並把無政府體系稱為「自然狀態」，並非像一群乳牛在農場安然吃草，情況反而猶如美國開拓西部邊疆年代的無警察小鎮；所有人相互為敵的戰爭，無更高權威維持秩序，生存既艱難、野蠻且短命 ・國際政治的中心問題是戰爭和使用武力，主要行為者是國家，首要是一國保護自己免於他國的侵犯 ・理查・尼克森及國務卿亨利・季辛吉致力增強美國的實力，及削弱其他國家威脅美國安全的能力 新現實主義 ・國家行動受國際體系中權力分配所限制
2）自由主義	・英國哲學家約翰・洛克指，無政府狀態缺少公認主權，人民仍可發展關係和訂立契約，無政府並非和平障礙 ・有一個全球社會與國家並存，且與國家共同運作，成為制約國家行為的重要的外部環境 ・法國孟德斯鳩、德國康德、英國哲學家傑瑞米・邊沁、約翰・史都華，穆勒等 新自由主義 ・國家行動受國際體系中經濟依存和國際機構所限制
3）馬克思主義	・否定國家是國際政治中最重要行為，認為經濟階級主要是資本家和工人是更為重要的行為者 ・關注資本主義國家的國內經濟結構，傾向於從階級動力角度來解釋世界政治，被稱為「經濟還原主義」或「歷史唯物主義」 ・最早由馬克思、怒格斯提出，後來獲其他理論家進一步論述和運用 依賴理論 ・處於全球市場「中心」地帶的富裕國家，控制處於「邊緣」地帶的貧窮國家，後者越來越貧困 ・第一世界（富裕、自由的資本國家）和第三世界（發展中國家）間的全球性經濟和政治分裂，或南北分裂，是歷史帝國主義和資本主義全球化產物 經濟成長階段論（羅斯托） i）傳統社會 ・自給農業、以物易物 ・缺乏基礎建設、貿易和生產力支持 ii）為起飛創造前提條件 ・機械化和專業化的變革 ・增加基礎建設、貿易和海外援助 iii）起飛 ・出現政治菁英及地區成長 ・工業化與都市化 ・增加短期投資 iv）走向成熟（長期） ・多元變革與技術創新 ・提高生活水準與國民經濟 ・社會、經濟和政治制度的變化 v）高額大眾消費 ・增加支出與耐用商品 ・消費者導向與服務主導的轉變
4）建構主義	・關注身份認同、規範、文化、國家利益及國際治理等 ・政治家和其他人的行為動機不僅是物質利益，亦包括他們的認同感、道德觀及認為甚麼是社會或文化認可的合適行為
5）女性主義	・關注的對象是性別 ・幾乎所有社會，包括西發利亞國家的無政府社會，都具有基本特徵，即父權制或者男性特質，如看重力量、自主、競爭和武鬥技巧 ・儘管每個人不同程度上都兼具男性特質與女性特質，但父權制對男性更為有利，並忽視女性權利、需求和特定的脆弱性 ・注意性別之間的巨大差異，在任何一個國家，婦女都未能享有與男人完全平等的地位

三）權力平衡

國際體系：

・單極體系：由一個國家（即霸權國家）主導，決定國際合作條件，使別國同意或接受

・兩極體系：兩個實力相當的國家（即超級強國）在各自勢力範圍內，對其盟國（實力較弱的國家或者僕從國）擁有主導權

・多極體系：三個或以上國家（即大國）擁有權力

1）作為權力分布的權力平衡	・權力均等會產生穩定；亦有指一國權力處於領先地位，其他國家不敢攻擊它時，才會出現穩定局面
2）作為政策的權力平衡	・即德語權力政治（realpolitik），堅定推行權力平衡政策 ・同盟是維持權力平衡的其中一種手段，主權國家透過協議結成盟友，維護共同經濟、軍事、或意識形態安全
3）作為理論的權力平衡	・國內政治中，經常出現追隨而非權力平衡行為，政治家常投靠佔上風一方 ・國際政治中，一國的盲從有損於該國的獨立地位，故國家加入處於下風一方，採取行動防止任何一國獲取優勢
4）作為歷史上多極體系的權力平衡	・要求數個國家遵循一套被普遍認可的遊戲規則，如拿破崙戰爭後至一戰前的歐洲體系

四）五大衝突處理策略

1）逃避	・旨在阻止衝突發生 ・簡單否認出現衝突，作出未經說明的陳述 ・除轉移和迴避話題，其他策略包括語意聚焦、抽象化、開玩笑、矛盾心理和悲觀主義 ・語意聚焦指聚焦在話語內容，闡述相關用語含義或描述如何引致衝突出現 ・延遲能起好的作用，前提是雙方能在不遠將來重新討論
2）競爭	・一方試圖以攻擊或權力擊敗對方，可能以自信方式而非侵略方式表現，差別在於在實現目標時有否傷害對方 ・可採取威脅、批評、對抗性言論或極端語言的形式 ・部分策略包括挑剔（直接批評個人，如「你看起來一團糟。」）、敵意提問（「你怎能忍受這樣生活？」）、敵意笑話（「如果你的朋友從懸崖上跳下來，你也會跳嗎？」）、推斷歸因、逃避責任和施加條件 ・推定歸因指將對方不承認的感受、想法或動機，歸因於他人的感受、想法或動機（「你只是這麼說，因為你知道這會讓我生氣。」）
3）妥協	・雙方必須作出某程度讓步，才能達成妥協的解決方案，或找到雙方均能接受的折衷方案
4）讓步	・一方壓抑個人實質需求，強調與對方的和諧（「照你的方式去做，我不想為此爭吵。」）
5）合作	・強調實現雙方目標及雙方關係 ・討論時收窄限制（「我們不要深究為何無足夠金錢，我們能否弄清楚現在擁有的東西，減輕雙方壓力？」） ・表達個人想法和感受，並邀請對方分享，嘗試建立良性氛圍（「當您談論與其他人約會時，我會感到焦慮。您是否不想再見我？」） ・反面詢問有助於引起對方分享，並保持開放的討論態度（「親愛的，如果我在某些方面傷害了你，我真的很想知道」）

五）戰爭與未來

關鍵詞	闡釋與例子
1）綏靖	・傳統外交手段，允許權力平衡發生，並有利於競爭對手的選擇；與其圍堵對手的侵略行為，不如讓對手獲好處
2）集體安全	・國家締結強大同盟圍堵侵略行為，嚇阻失敗或使用武力
3）嚇阻	​・透過恐嚇讓對手打消某種念頭 ・國家以增加軍備、締結同盟和威脅，阻止他國發動進攻 ・超級大國以核武威脅促使對手放棄某種行為，而非在敵手發動進攻後，透過防禦抵制，避免破壞兩國權力平衡
4）圍堵	・既可是進攻性，也可是防禦性 ・戰爭或同盟形式的軍事圍堵、貿易集團或制裁形式的經濟圍堵，或運用軟實力，即進行思想和價值觀傳播 ・美國在冷戰時期所採取的特定政策，透過盟友與美方軍事基地，及在蘇聯勢力範圍外，形成自由世界經濟與政治秩序以包圍蘇聯
5）干涉	・廣義：影響另一主權國家內部事務的外部行為 ・狹義：對另一個國家內部事務進行強迫性的干預 ・如演說、廣播、經濟援助、軍事顧問、支持反對派、封鎖、有限軍事行動、軍事入侵等
6）相互依存	・一個體系中的行為者或者事件相互影響 ・情勢本身無好壞、只有程度大小之分 ・盧梭認為相互依存帶來摩擦和衝突，而「解決辦法」就是孤立和分離；惟難以完全隔絕全球化世界
7）網絡效應	・越多的人使用同一種產品，相關產品價值越高 ・經濟學家約瑟夫，斯蒂格利茨認為，知識經濟產生強大外溢效應，經常像火般迅速傳播，帶來更多創新成果，引起新發明的連鎖反應；惟產品不同於知識，並非總能像火那樣傳播 ・隨著相互依存更深和更快，不同網絡關係變得重要，網絡聯繫增多，結果是「體系效應」，即一個地方出現動亂會傳播到整個體系，變得更重要
8）散居共同體	・美國作家大衛・博里爾：「網際網路對這樣的人群來說是一個天賜之物，因為它使得那些數量很多和享有共同的歷史、但在地理上相互隔絕的人們，可以組成大的虛擬共同體 。」

名稱：哈佛最熱門的國際關係課：國際關係大師奈伊教你洞悉局勢，掌握先機，佈局未來！(Understanding Global Conflict and Cooperation: An Introduction to Theory and History)

作者：約瑟夫・奈伊、大衛・威爾許（張小明譯）

年份：2019

出版地：臺灣

出版社：商業周刊

類別：國際關係、社會科學

評分：6.5/10

Glosnap: Keywords of International Relations and Balance of Power

A）Three Basic Forms of World Politics

Basic Form	Explanation and Example(s)
1）World Imperial System	・One government controls most of the world with which it has contact. ・The empire thought they ruled the world, but they were protected from conflict with other empires by lack of communication. ・Their fights with barbarians on the peripheries of their empires were not the same as wars among roughly equal states. ・E.g. Roman Empire, Sumerian Empire, Persian Empire
2）Feudal System	・Human loyalties and political obligations are not fixed primarily by territorial boundaries. ・An individual had obligations to a local lord, but might also owe duties to some distant noble or bishop, as well as to the pope in Rome. ・Political obligations were determined to a large extent by what happened to one’s superiors. ・It was common in Europe after the collapse of the Roman Empire.
3）Anarchic System of States	・It is composed of states that are relatively cohesive but with no higher government above them. ・In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia ended Europe’s 30 Years’ War, sometimes called the last of the great wars of religion and the first of the wars of modern states. ・In retrospect, the Peace of Westphalia enshrined the territorial sovereign state as the dominant political unit. ・E.g. the city-states of ancient Greece

B）Basic Theory of International Relations

Basic Theory	Explanation and Representative(s)
1）Realism	・International politics is a self-help system. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) called such an anarchic system a “state of nature.” ・Not a state of nature as benign; he saw it as a war of all against all, because there was no higher ruler to enforce order. ・E.g. a Texas town without a sheriff in the days of the Old West, or Lebanon after its government broke down in the 1970s, or Somalia in the 1990s. ・The central problem of international politics is war and the use of force, and the central actors are states. ・The beginning and the end of international politics is the individual state in interaction with other states. Neorealism ・The actions of states are constrained primarily by the distribution of power in the international system.
2）Liberalism	・John Locke (1632-1704) argued that although a state of nature lacked a common sovereign, people could develop ties and make contracts, and anarchy was not necessarily an obstacle to peace. ・A global society functions alongside states and sets an important part of the context for state action. ・It can be traced back in Western political philosophy to Baron de Montesquieu, Immanuel Kant, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Neoliberalism ・The actions of states are constrained by economic interdependence and international institutions.
3）Marxism	・Originally developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels and subsequently enhanced and adapted by other theorists. ・Marxism focused on the domestic economic structure of capitalist states. ・Its concentration on economic class, production, and property relations has been called “economic reductionism” or “historical materialism.” ・Politics is a function of economics and predicted that the greed of capitalists would drive important events in international relations, ultimately proving their own undoing as socialist revolution swept the globe. Base-superstructure ・Base: means of production VS relations of production ・Superstructure: legal, political, cultural institution and practice ・Base will lead to social change; while the superstructure reflect and reinforce pattern of power and economic control Dependency Theory ・The wealthy countries in the “center” of the global marketplace would control and hold back poorer countries on the “periphery.” ・The global economic and political division between the First World (rich, liberal, capitalist countries) and the Third World (developing countries), aka the North-South divide, is the result of both historical imperialism and the nature of capitalist globalization. Modernization Theory (Walt W. Rostow) i）Traditional Society ・subsistence agriculture and bartering ・Decrease supporting infrastructure, trade and productivity ii）Pre-condition for Takeoff ・Change in mechanization and specialization ・Increase in infrastructure and commercial trade, saving and overseas aids iii）Takeoff ・Change in political elite and regional growth ・Change in industrialization and urbanization ・Increase in investment (short period) iv）Drive to Maturity (long period) ・Change in diversification and technology innovation ・Increase the standard of living and national economy ・Change in social, economic and political institution v）High Mass Consumption ・Increase in disposable income and durable good ・Change in consumer oriented and service-led
4）Constructivism	・It emphasizes the importance of ideas and culture in shaping both the reality and the discourse of international politics. It stresses the ultimate subjectivity of interests and their links to changing identities. ・It focuses on important questions about identities, norms, culture, national interests, and international governance. Leaders and other people are motivated not only by material interests, but also by their sense of identity, morality, and what their society or culture considers appropriate.
5）Feminism	・It highlights disparities between the sexes. ・By focusing on social processes, nonelite issues, and transnational structures, and by rejecting the established, limited focus on interstate relations, it aims to study world politics more inclusively and reveal “the processes through which identities and interests, not merely of states but of key social constituencies, are shaped at the global level.

C）Balance of Power

World System

・Unipolar Systems: one country (i.e. a hegemon) enjoys a preponderance of power and can effectively set the terms of international cooperation and enforce or elicit compliance.

・Bipolar System: two countries of similar power (i.e. superpowers) enjoy primacy within their particular sphere or among other states aligned with them (lesser powers or client states).

・Multipolar System: three or more countries (i.e. great powers) wield an unusual degree of power.

1）Balances as Distributions of Power	・The international system is most stable when there is an equal balance of power; others argue that when one side has a preponderance of power so the others dare not attack it. ・A declining hegemon or states fearing a rising power will take desperate measures to protect their position, while a rising power will gamble to attain hegemony.
2）Balance of Power as Policy	・Often referred to by the German word “realpolitik”. ・A key instrument for attempting to maintain a balance of power is alliance. Alliances are agreements that sovereign states enter into with each other in order to ensure their mutual security.
​3）Balance of Power as Theory	・In domestic politics, often bandwagoning instead of balancing: Politicians often flock to a likely winner. ・Yet, bandwagoning in international politics risks one’s independence. A state will join whoever seems weaker. States will act to keep any one state from becoming preponderant.
4）Balances of Power as Historical Multipolar Systems	・It requires a number of countries that follow a set of rules of the game that are generally understood. ・Often use the phrase “the 19th-century balance of power” to refer to the European system between the Napoleonic Wars and World War I.

D）Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument

1）Avoidance	・Avoidance behaviors include a wide spectrum of evasive strategies intended to head off a confrontation. ・In simple denial, unelaborated statements are made denying that there is a conflict. ・In addition to shifting and avoiding topics, other tactics include semantic focus, abstractness, joking, ambivalence, and pessimism. ・Semantic focus is an especially interesting dodge. The person trying to avoid conflict focuses on what is being said, then makes statements about what the words mean or how to characterize the ongoing conflict and this discussion of words. ・Postponement, although it is sometimes a strategy for avoidance, can work well, but only if both parties will work out a discussion time that is not too far in the future.
2）Competition	・One party tries to use aggression or power to beat the other party. It may also be exhibited in an assertive way rather than an aggressive way. The difference is whether you are injuring the other party while trying to accomplish your goals. ・It may take the form of threats, criticisms, confrontational remarks, or extreme language choices. ・Some competitive tactics include faulting (direct personal criticism, such as "You look like a mess."), hostile questioning ("How can you stand to live like that?"), hostile joking ("If your friends jumped off a cliff, would you jump too?"), presumptive attribution, avoiding responsibility, and prescription. ・Presumptive attribution refers to making statements that attribute to the other person feelings, thoughts, or motives that he or she does not acknowledge ("You're just saying that because you know it makes me angry.").
3）Compromise	・Both parties have to give in a bit so as to reach a compromise solution, or find mutually acceptable tradeoffs in order to resolve a conflict.
4）Accommodation	・One suppresses his or her substantive needs and emphasizes harmony with the other party ("Go ahead and do it your way. I don't want to fight about this.").
5）Collaboration	・It involves a high degree of concern for achieving the goals of both parties, as well as a high degree of concern for the relationship between the parties. ・Qualification involves limiting the subject at issue ("Let's not get into why we don't have enough money. Can we figure out how we can manage what we have right now to make it less stressful for both of us?"). ・By disclosing your own thoughts and feelings and soliciting disclosures from the other person, you are trying to establish a supportive climate in which conflict may be resolved ("When you talk about dating other people, I get anxious. Are you trying to say that you want to stop seeing me?"). ・Negative inquiries also help to elicit disclosures and greater openness from the other person ("Honey, if there's some way in which I've hurt your feelings, I'd really like to know about it").

E）The Future of Warfare

Keyword	Explanation and Example(s)
1）Appeasement	・A classic tool of diplomacy; a policy choice to allow for changes in the balance of power that benefit a rival state, rather than attempting to deter or contain the aggression of adversaries, a state might prefer to allow its adversaries modest gains. ・Generally, the act or policy of accommodating the demands of an assertive power in an attempt to prevent conflict; more specifically, when referring to British policy between the two world wars, the policy of satisfying Germany’s legitimate grievances.
2）Collective Security	・A means of maintaining peace in which a group of states agree on an institutional framework and legal mechanism to prevent or respond to aggression. ・E.g. the auspices of the United Nations were the Korean War (1950-1953) and the Persian Gulf War (1991)
3）Deter	・To deter is to dissuade through fear. ・With the advent of nuclear weapons, the superpowers attempted to maintain peace more by dissuading an attack by threatening painful retaliation than by preparing to defend against an attack with it.
4）Containment	・Can be offensive or defensive ・Use military power in the form of war or alliances; use economic power in the form of trading blocs or sanctions; use soft power in the form of promoting ideas and values ・Fearing Soviet expansionism, the US practiced containment. This was a specific policy of surrounding the Soviet Union with U.S. allies and U.S. bases, and of promoting a liberal economic and political world order outside of the Soviet sphere of influence.
5）Interference	・In its broadest definition, it refers to external actions that influence the domestic affairs of another sovereign state. ・Some analysts use the term more narrowly to refer to forcible interference in the domestic affairs of another state. ・For example, speeches, broadcasts, economic aid, military adviser, support opposition, blockade, limited military action, military invasion.
6）Interdependence	・Situations characterized by reciprocal effects among countries or other actors. ・Interdependence in a given area occurs within a framework of rules, norms, and institutions that are called a regime.
7）Network Effects	・Situations in which a product becomes more valuable once many other people also use it. ・Economist Joseph Stiglitz argues that a knowledge-based economy generates “powerful spillover effects, often spreading like fire and triggering further innovation and setting off chain reactions of new inventions. But goods, as opposed to knowledge, do not always spread like fire. ・As interdependence has become thicker and quicker, the relationships among different networks have become more important. As a result, “system effects”, by which small perturbations in one area can spread throughout a whole system, become more important.
8）Diaspora Communities	・In the words of communications expert David Bollier, “The Internet has been a godsend to such populations, because it enables large numbers of geographically isolated people with a shared history to organize into large virtual communities.”

Title: Understanding Global Conflict and Cooperation: An Introduction to Theory and History (10th Edition)

Author: Joseph S. Nye Jr., David A. Welch

Year: 2016

Region: USA

Publisher: Pearson

Genre: Social Science, International Relations

Score: 6.5/10